By Frances A. Koestler
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1749
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In his "Letter on the Blind for the Use of Those Who See," Denis Diderot states that learning through touch involves different mental processes than those involved with sight.
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1774
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Letter on the Education of the Blind
is published by Demodocus, who is thought to be a blind man.
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1776
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Abbé de l'Epée publishes a book on instructing people who are deaf-mutes, which may have influenced Haüy to teach blind children.
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1779
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Thomas Jefferson's education bill calls for state-sponsored education of girls as well as boys.
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1780
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Proponents of humanism and the Enlightenment form the Société Philantropique in France, which is interested in aiding people who are blind.
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1784
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Valentine Haüy establishes L'Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles (Institute for Blind Youths), the first school for children who are blind in Paris. He experiments with various sizes and forms of raised Roman letters to teach students who are blind to read.
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1791
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The first school for the blind in England opens in Liverpool.
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1808
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Charles Barbier invents Écriture Nocturne (night writing) for use by French soldiers at night.
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1809
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Louis Braille is born in Coupvray, France.
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1817
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The American Asylum for the Education and Instruction of the Deaf (now the American School for the Deaf) in Hartford, Connecticut, the first educational program for exceptional children and youths, is formally established in the United States with Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet as the principal.
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1823
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The first state school for the deaf is established in Kentucky.
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1825–50
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Teachers of blind students, often blind graduates of residential schools, are prepared through apprenticeship programs during this period.
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1827
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James Gall publishes First Book for Teaching the Art of Reading to the Blind
, the first English-language work in raised type.
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1829
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The first U.S. patent for a typewriter is issued.
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1829
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Louis Braille publishes an explanation of his embossed dot code, which was inspired by Barbier.
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1829
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The New England Asylum for the Blind (later the Perkins School for the Blind) is incorporated in Watertown, Massachusetts.
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1831
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The New York Institution for the Education of the Blind (now the New York Institute for Special Education) is incorporated.
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1831
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Samuel Gridley Howe becomes the director of the New England Asylum for the Blind (now the Perkins School for the Blind).
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1832
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The first students are accepted at the Perkins School for the Blind and the New York Institution for the Blind.
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1832
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The Scottish Art Society offers a prize for the best and most practical system of embossing for people who are blind. A medal is awarded to Dr. Edmund Fry for his modified Roman form.
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1832
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The Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind (later the Overbrook School for the Blind) is founded.
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1833
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Gospel of St. Mark
, the first book in raised print in the United States, is printed in Philadelphia.
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1834
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Louis Braille perfects the literary braille code.
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1835
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Acts of the Apostles
is the first book embossed in Boston Line Type, a tactile code developed by Samuel Gridley Howe.
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1836
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Henry Martyn Taylor devises a tangible mathematics apparatus for computations.
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1837
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The Perkins School for the Blind establishes a printing plant, later named the Howe Memorial Press.
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1837
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Ohio establishes the first state-supported residential school for the blind.
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1837
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Laura Bridgman, the first child who is deaf-blind to be educated, is admitted to Perkins School for the Blind.
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1839
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A state-supported normal school for training general education teachers is started in Lexington, Massachusetts.
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1842
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Charles Dickens describes his visit to the Perkins School for the Blind in American Notes
.
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1847
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Dr. Robert Moon develops his raised-line type, referred to as Moon Type.
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1851
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Herman von Helmholtz invents the ophthalmoscope.
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1852
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Boston Line Type becomes the predominant reading medium for people who are blind in the United States until braille, a point system, is later adopted.
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1852
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Louis Braille dies of pulmonary consumption.
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1854
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France officially adopts braille as a reading mode for people who are blind.
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1855
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Dr. William Moon and the Moon Society volunteers begin touring Britain and instructing people who are blind in reading in their homes.
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1858
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The Kentucky legislature establishes the American Printing House for the Blind (APH) as an offshoot of the Kentucky School for the Blind.
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1859–1952
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John Dewey, the American educator and philosopher, advocates individualized learning and direct experience as the tenets for educational programs.
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1860
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The Missouri School for the Blind becomes the first institute in the United States to use braille.
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1866
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Samuel Gridley Howe, the first director of the Perkins School for the Blind, expresses concern about segregated education for students who are blind in residential schools.
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1868
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The first conference of Executives of American Schools for the Deaf is held.
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1868
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William B. Wait develops the New York Point raised-dot system at the New York Institution for the Blind.
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1868
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Braille is accepted in Great Britain.
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1871
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The first pamphlet on braille music notation is published.
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1871
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Stereotype plates are created for braille production.
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1871
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The American Association of Instructors of the Blind (AAIB) is founded and endorses New York Point.
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1872
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The Scottish Education Act calls for educating children who are blind with sighted children.
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1873
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The first Congress of Teachers of the Blind is held in Vienna.
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1876
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Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone.
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1877
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Thomas Edison invents the tin foil phonograph and lists "Books for Blind People" on his patent application.
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1878
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Joel W. Smith at the Perkins School for the Blind develops the American raised-point system, modeled closely on braille, which becomes the foundation for American braille.
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1880
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Helen Keller is born in Tuscumbia, Alabama, on June 27.
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1880
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Anne Sullivan enters the Perkins School for the Blind.
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1882
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The Pennsylvania Institution starts an organized kindergarten for students who are blind.
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1887
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Anne Sullivan gives Helen Keller, age 7, an understanding of language.
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1887
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The Perkins School for the Blind founds a kindergarten for babies who are blind.
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1888
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The International Congress for Standardization of Braille Music Notation is held in Cologne, Germany.
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1891
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Thomas H. Gallaudet begins the first teacher training program for students who are deaf.
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1892
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Frank Hall and Gustav A. Sieber develop the braillewriter, the first mechanical device for writing braille.
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1893
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The first nursery for neglected babies who are blind is started in Hartford, Connecticut.
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1893
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The Blind and Deaf Children Act in England provides compulsory elementary education for children aged 5–16.
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1895
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The American Blind People's Higher Education and General Improvement Association (later the American Association of Workers for the Blind) is founded.
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1895
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The Royal Normal College in England starts a college to train persons who are blind as teachers.
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1898
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Alexander Graham Bell states: "Handicapped children have a right to an education in the public school."
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1898
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The first day school for the blind is established in England.
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1899
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The braille shorthand system is developed.
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1899
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Chicago establishes the first day school classes for "crippled children."
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1900
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Wisconsin and Michigan authorize subsidies for the excess cost of classes for students who are deaf in public schools, the first financial support for any children with disabilities.
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1900
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The Tactile Print Investigating Committee is appointed to resolve the problem of numerous tactile reading systems.
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1900
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Day school classes for students with visual impairments are established in Chicago.
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1902
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A library and reading room for people who are blind opens in San Francisco.
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1903
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The Story of My Life
, by Helen Keller, is published.
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1904
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Helen Keller, the first deaf-blind person to earn a college degree, graduates from Radcliffe College in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
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1905
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The American Blind People's Higher Education and General Improvement Association becomes the American Association of Workers for the Blind (AAWB).
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1905
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Britain adopts the uniform braille code.
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1905
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The New York Association for the Blind (now Lighthouse International) is founded.
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1905
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The Uniform Type Committee is formed.
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1907
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Helen Keller, who had learned four embossed codes, pleads for a single code.
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1907
|
The first issue of Outlook for the Blind
is published in April by Charles Campbell (and later by the American Foundation for the Blind); it becomes The New Outlook for the Blind
in January 1952 and then the Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness
in January 1976.
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1908
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The first class for "high myopes" begins in London.
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1909
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The First White House Conference on Children and Youth is held.
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1909
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Robert B. Irwin organizes braille reading classes in Cleveland public schools.
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1909
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Ohio appoints the first state supervisor of education for children who are visually impaired.
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1910
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The Arthur Sunshine Home and Kindergarten for Blind Babies opens in Summit, New Jersey.
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1911
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New York State makes education compulsory for students who are blind.
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1912
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Students who are blind in public day-school classes become eligible to receive APH materials.
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1913
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Robert B. Irwin uses 36-point type in books for "partially seeing" students.
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1913
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The first classes for "partially seeing" students are started in Roxbury, Massachusetts, and Cleveland, Ohio.
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1913
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The Uniform Type Committee recommends a system based on British braille.
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1914
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Robert B. Irwin and H.H. Goddard adapt the Binet Test for Blind Pupils.
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1915
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The National Society for the Prevention of Blindness (NSPB) is founded.
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1916
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Samuel P. Hayes establishes departments of psychological research at Overbrook and Perkins.
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1918
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The University of California offers the first university preparation course for teachers of students who are blind.
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1918
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APH adopts Revised Standard English Braille for textbooks.
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1919
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The Blind, Their Condition, and the Work Done for Them in the United States
, by Harry Best, is published.
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1920
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Barr, Stroud, and Fournier d'Albe patent the optophone, the first reading machine for people who are blind, which translates printed letters into musical tones.
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1921
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Edward E. Allen establishes a formal teacher training program at Perkins School for the Blind.
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1921
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The American Foundation for the Blind (AFB) is founded.
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1921
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Teachers College at Columbia University offers the first summer program for teachers of students who are partially sighted.
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1921
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The American Red Cross adopts braille transcribing as part of its volunteer service.
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1922
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The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) is founded.
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1923
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APH expands its tangible apparatus facilities.
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1925
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Peabody College for Teachers establishes the first summer preparation program for teachers of students who are blind.
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1925
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The Perkins-Harvard course for teachers gives graduate college credits.
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1925
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The Carnegie Corporation funds an APH study of braille interpoint equipment.
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1927
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Frank Dyer patents his process for producing long-playing records.
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1928
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The first issue of Teacher's Forum
is published by AFB.
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1928
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The crusade begins to eliminate ophthalmia neonatorum by putting silver nitrate in newborn babies' eyes.
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1928
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AFB supervises the distribution of radios to citizens who are blind, the foundation's first direct service for these individuals.
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1929
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The Seeing Eye, the first dog guide school in the United States, is incorporated.
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1930
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The White House Conference on Child Health and Protection assigns a committee to study the needs of exceptional children. Recommendations include the establishment of braille day-school classes throughout the country and special attention directed toward vocational adjustments, social training, and kindergarten training.
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1930
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The National Institute for the Blind introduces a high-speed rotary press for embossed type.
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1930
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NSPB and AFB cooperate on a standard eye examination report.
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1930
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The Hayes-Binet test for pupils who are blind is developed by Samuel P. Hayes.
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1931
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The Library of Congress establishes the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped and begins to distribute braille materials and phonograph records to readers who are blind in accordance with the Pratt-Smoot Act of 1930.
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1931
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The first World Conference on Work for the Blind is held in New York.
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1931
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Three states issue certificates to special education teachers of children who are blind.
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1932
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AFB develops Talking Books, long-playing records and playback machines.
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1932
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AAIB establishes a committee to develop a teacher certification program.
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1932
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Standard English Braille is adopted as uniform type by the American and British Uniform Type Committees.
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1933
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APH adopts Standard English Braille Grade 2 for junior and senior high school textbooks.
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1933
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The Blind in School and Society
, by Thomas Cutsforth, a doctoral candidate who is blind, is published by AFB.
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1934
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The first Talking Books on long-playing records are produced.
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1934
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The American Medical Association (AMA) defines legal blindness.
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1934
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AAIB establishes teacher certification guidelines.
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1934
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Dog guides are permitted on the day coaches of three major railroads.
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1935
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Columbia University starts a year-round program for teachers of students who are blind at Teachers College.
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1935
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The Social Security Act is passed. It adopts the AMA's definition of legal blindness.
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1935
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President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signs an executive order allotting funds to the Library of Congress to develop a Talking Book machine.
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1936
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APH produces recorded material.
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1937
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Ralph G. Hurlin develops a formula to estimate the population of people who are blind.
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1938
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AAIB sets up its teacher certification program.
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1938
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Father Thomas Carroll begins work at the Catholic Guild for the Blind.
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1939
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The dictaphone is used as an instructional aid in sight-saving classes.
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1939
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Visagraph, a device that produces raised print or diagrams, is demonstrated at the World's Fair by Robert E. Naumburg.
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1939–45
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Berthold Lowenfeld explores the educational role of recorded books and demonstrates the value of Talking Books in the teaching process.
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1940
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The National Federation of the Blind (NFB) is founded.
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1941
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The growing incidence of visual impairments in premature infants, later identified as retrolental fibroplasia (RLF), is noted in infants.
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1942
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Alfred Kestenbaum, a physician, develops the microlense, a simple reading device.
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1942
|
Interim Hayes-Binet Tests for the Blind are developed.
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1942
|
The first textbook on children with low vision, Education and Health of the Partially Sighted Child
by Winifred Hathaway, is published.
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1944
|
Richard E. Hoover at the Valley Forge Hospital and Russell Williams at Hines Hospital and others develop long-cane mobility techniques.
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1944
|
Retrolental fibroplasia (now known as retinopathy of prematurity) is identified by Dr. Theodore Terry and others at Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary.
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1945
|
The National Braille Association is established.
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1947
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APH begins the regular publication of large-type books.
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1947
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The Perkins Brailler, an improvement over older methods, is designed and developed by David Abraham of Howe Press.
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1948
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The Council for Education of the Partially Seeing is established as a division of the Council for Exceptional Children.
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1948
|
Recording for the Blind (now Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic) is established.
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1950
|
Blindness: Modern Approaches to the Unseen Environment
, by Paul Zahl is published.
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1950
|
Vision: Its Development in Infant and Child
, by Arnold Gesell, is published.
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1951
|
First issue of the International Journal for the Education of the Blind
(now Education of the Visually Handicapped
) is published by AAIB.
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1953
|
The Nemeth Braille Mathematics Code is established.
|
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1953
|
Father Thomas Carroll holds the Gloucester Conference to define the role and training of mobility instructors.
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1953
|
The first low vision clinics open at the New York Lighthouse and the Industrial Home for the Blind.
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1953
|
National Aid to the Visually Handicapped, a private organization dedicated solely to producing large-type textbooks for school-age children, is founded in San Francisco.
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1954
|
A study links RLF to high oxygen treatment in premature babies.
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1954
|
The National Association for Visually Handicapped (NAVH) is founded.
|
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1954
|
The U.S. Office of Education holds a conference on the qualifications and preparation of teachers of exceptional children.
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1954
|
The Pine Brook Report
(from AFB) identifies different educational options for students who are blind or visually impaired and the type of teacher preparation required.
|
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1955
|
The Perkins School for the Blind starts the first training program for teachers of deaf-blind students in association with Boston University.
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1956
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The Subnormal Vision Clinic (later called the Low Vision Center) is established at the Maryland Workshop for the Blind.
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1956
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Educational materials from APH are made available to day- school pupils.
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1957
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The thermoform machine is developed to reproduce raised-line diagrams or graphics.
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1957
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The Visotoner, a reading device that produces sounds for letters, and Visotactor, a reading machine that produces vibrations to the fingers, are developed.
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1957
|
Peabody College for Teachers of Vanderbilt University in Nashville sets up a year-round program for teachers of students who are blind.
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1957
|
The Industrial Home for the Blind reports on its optical aids service and defines the basic model for what has become the standard low vision service.
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1957
|
Richard Hoover, an ophthalmologist, presents the functional definitions of blindness.
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1957
|
The Maxfield-Buccholz Social Maturity Scale for Blind Preschool Children
is published.
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1958
|
A Psychiatrist Works with Blindness
, by Louis Cholden, is published by AFB.
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1959
|
The American Optometric Association establishes the Committee on Aid to the Partially Sighted.
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1960
|
Boston College starts the first university program for O&M instructors.
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1961
|
Gerald Fonda evaluates telescopic spectacles for mobility.
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1961
|
Father Thomas Carroll publishes Blindness: What It Is, What It Does and How to Live With It
.
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1961
|
The American Council of the Blind (ACB) is founded.
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1962
|
The concept of the instructional materials centers is formulated through the recommendations of a presidential task force.
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1962
|
The Model Reporting Area for Blindness Statistics begins to publish data on the incidence (new cases) and prevalence (existing cases) of blindness.
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1963
|
Computers are adapted to produce braille outputs.
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1963
|
Dr. Ruth Kaarlela coordinates the first graduate Home Teacher of the Adult Blind training program (later Department of Blind Rehabilitation) at Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo.
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1963
|
Natalie Barraga studies the increased visual behavior of children and develops a visual efficiency scale and sequential learning activities and materials for training children with low vision.
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1964–65
|
The rubella (German measles) epidemic in pregnant women causes handicapping conditions, including deafness and blindness in babies.
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1965
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The prototype of the Sonicguide (the Kay binaural sensory aid) is invented.
|
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1965
|
Samuel C. Ashcroft, Carol Halliday, and Natalie Barraga replicate Barraga's original study on visual efficiency.
|
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1966
|
The CEC Project on Professional Standards defines visually handicapped
to include both blind and partially sighted.
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1966
|
The report of the Commission on Standards and Accreditation of Services for the Blind attempts to set standards for services to people who are visually impaired.
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1967
|
Ruth Holmes replicates Barraga's 1963 study (published in 1964) and reports on the visual efficiency training of adolescents with low vision.
|
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1967
|
San Francisco State University and Florida State University establish the first programs to train mobility instructors of children.
|
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1967
|
The National Accreditation Council for Agencies Serving the Blind and Visually Handicapped (NAC) is founded.
|
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1968
|
Helen Keller dies.
|
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1968
|
AAIB becomes the Association for Education of the Visually Handicapped (AEVH).
|
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1968
|
Certification of mobility instructors by AAWB begins.
|
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1968
|
Federally funded deaf-blind programs are established.
|
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1969
|
The Making of Blind Men, A Study of Adult Socialization
, by Robert Scott, is published by the Russell Sage Foundation.
|
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1969
|
Samuel Genensky, a mathematician with low vision, and his colleagues at the Rand Corporation in Santa Monica, California, report on their development of closed-circuit television (CCTV).
|
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1970
|
Natalie Barraga's Teachers Guide for the Development of Visual Learning Abilities and Utilization of Low Vision
, including the Visual Efficiency Scale, is published by APH.
|
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1970
|
The U.S. Office of Education sponsors Low Vision Conferences around the United States.
|
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1970
|
Eleanor E. Faye's book, The Low Vision Patient: Clinical Experience with Adults and Children
, is published.
|
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1970
|
CCTVs become commercially available.
|
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1970
|
The Mowat sensor is developed.
|
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1971
|
The Optacon tactile reading machine is developed by John Linvill and James C. Bliss.
|
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1971
|
"Blindness and Services to the Blind in the United States: A Report of the Subcommittee on Rehabilitation, National Institution on Neurological Diseases and Blindness" is published by the Organization for Social and Technical Innovation.
|
|
1971
|
Virginia Bishop's textbook, Teaching the Visually Limited Child
, is published.
|
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1972
|
Western Michigan University institutes the first required course on low vision as part of its program for preparing O&M personnel.
|
|
1972
|
The Banks pocket brailler is developed by Alfred Banks in San Diego, California, and produced by International Business Machines.
|
|
1972
|
Head Start programs are mandated to take children with disabilities.
|
|
1973
|
Berthold Lowenfeld's book, The Visually Handicapped Child in School
, is published.
|
|
1974
|
CEC revises Professional Standards and Guidelines in Special Education.
|
|
1975
|
The talking calculator with audio and visual output is developed.
|
|
1975
|
The first microcomputer is developed.
|
|
1975
|
Eleanor E. Faye and Clare Hood's book, Low Vision
, is published.
|
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1976
|
Large-print calculators become available.
|
|
1976
|
Four states require by law that all general classroom teachers must be prepared to include exceptional pupils in their classes.
|
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1976
|
Raymond C. Kurzweil develops the Kurzweil Reader, a prototype translator of printed material into synthesized speech.
|
|
1976
|
The Unseen Minority: A Social History of Blindness in the United States
, by Frances Koestler, is published.
|
|
1976
|
New Outlook for the Blind
is renamed the Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness
.
|
|
1977
|
The White House Conference on Handicapped Individuals is held.
|
|
1977
|
Susan Jay Spungin publishes her teachers' competence study.
|
|
1977
|
The Association of Instructional Resource Centers for the Visually Handicapped is founded.
|
|
1977
|
The first mass-market personal computers are launched.
|
|
1978
|
The Rehabilitation Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Education (RSA) funds university O&M programs for all disabilities ("Generic O&M") at the University of Wisconsin, Madison (funding discontinued in 1983).
|
|
1979
|
The American Council of Blind Parents is formed by ACB.
|
|
1979
|
The Department of Health, Education & Welfare becomes two separate departments—Education and Health and Human Services; RSA is transferred to the Department of Education.
|
|
1979
|
The first Special Study Institute for State Education Consultants for the Visually Handicapped is sponsored by the University of Michigan with federal funds.
|
|
1980
|
The National Association of Parents of the Visually Impaired (NAPVI) is established.
|
|
1980
|
Foundations of Orientation and Mobility
, edited by Richard L. Welsh and Bruce B. Blasch, is published by AFB.
|
|
1981
|
Autoimmunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is identified.
|
|
1981
|
Viewscan, a reading aid, and the Viewscan Text System (VTS) are developed.
|
|
1982
|
The North American Conference on Visually Handicapped Infants and Preschool Children is held.
|
|
1983
|
The Rehabilitation Optometry Journal
(later renamed the Journal of Vision Rehabilitation
) is founded by Randall Jose.
|
|
1983
|
Understanding Low Vision
, edited by Randall Jose, is published by AFB.
|
|
1983
|
Vision Research: A National Plan: 1983–87
, is published by the National Eye Institute and includes a panel on low vision.
|
|
1983
|
The Pennsylvania College of Optometry offers a master's degree in low vision rehabilitation.
|
|
1983
|
The first braille embosser attachment to a microcomputer is developed.
|
|
1983
|
Project C.A.B.L.E. (Computer Access for Blind Employment) is established at the Carroll Center.
|
|
1983
|
AFB assumes the sponsorship of the Special Study Institutes for Educational Leadership personnel, which is renamed the Josephine L. Taylor Leadership Institute.
|
|
1984
|
AAWB and AEVH merge as the Association for Education and Rehabilitation of Blind and Visually Impaired (AERBVI).
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1984
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The Peabody Preschool O&M Project (HCEEP Model Demonstration Project) is funded.
|
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1984
|
Microcomputers become widely used by people with visual impairments.
|
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1984
|
NFB creates the Division of Parents of Blind Children.
|
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1985
|
The World Council for the Welfare of the Blind and the International Federation of the Blind merge as the World Blind Union.
|
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1986
|
AFB opens the National Technology Center.
|
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1989
|
The Profession of Orientation and Mobility in the 1980s
, by William Jacobson, is published by AFB.
|
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1989
|
The World Wide Web revolutionizes communication through the Internet.
|
|
1990
|
Preschool Orientation and Mobility Screening
, by B. Dodson-Burk and E. Hill, is published by Division 9 of AER.
|
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1993
|
First bienniel "Getting in Touch with Literacy" conference is held in Little Rock, Arkansas.
|
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1995
|
The National Agenda for the Education of Children and Youths with Visual Impairments, Including Those With Multiple Disabilities, is endorsed by organizations nationwide.
|
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1996
|
Foundations of Low Vision
, edited by Anne L. Corn and Alan J. Koenig, is published by AFB.
|
|
1997
|
The second edition of Foundations of Orientation and Mobility
, edited by Bruce B. Blasch, William R. Wiener, and Richard L. Welsh, is published by AFB.
|
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1998
|
The Virginia Murray Sowell Center for Research and Education in Visual Impairment is established at Texas Tech University.
|
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2000
|
Academy for certification of Vision Rehabilitation and Education Professionals is established.
|
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2000
|
American Foundation for the Blind National Literacy Center established.
|
* Source: Reprinted from G. L. Scholl, "Chronology of Events in the History of Education of People Who Are Visually Impaired," in M. C. Holbrook & A. J. Koenig, Eds., Foundations of Education, Vol. I: History and Theory of Teaching Children and Youths with Visual Impairments (2nd ed.) (New York: AFB Press, 2000), pp. 41–52.